HomeMy WebLinkAboutEnviron Stat&Trends in SE 2000
he Southeast is a special place. Rich and diverse with beautiful and varied coastlines, it
has more miles of rivers than any other region and more of the country's remaining
wetlands. It also contains five million acres of Southern Appalachian national forests
and parks the largest contiguous tract of public land in the eastern U.S.
However, as we enter the 21st century, the Southeast faces
some enormous environmental challenges. It's the fastest
growing region of the country, with the most miles of new
road construction. Miami and Atlanta are among the nation's
top 10 sprawling cities, and Atlantans drive more miles per
day than most other Americans. Although growth has
brought us unparalleled prosperity, it's also placing unprece-
dented pressures on our environment and natural resources.
Air and water quality are declining and we're continuing to
lose the special places that make our region unique.
T~ C~i~ The Southeast Natural Resource Leaders
GroUp (SENRLG) is an informal alliance of senior federal
executives who have Chosen to respond to our region's new
challenges c°llaboratively. By leveraging our combined
resources, we're working to achieve clear and measurable
improvements in the condition of our natural resources.
We're committed to engaging the public more effectively
and operating more creatively and flexibly within our indi-
vidual agencies to meet specific natural resource and envi-
ronmental goals.
This report presents some of today's environmental
issues against a backdrop of current and past economic and
societal trends. It also highlights some of the promising solu-
tions emerging throughout our region, and serves as the
basis for future status updates to the public by federal
resource agencies.
The report uses a set of environmental indicators to explore
the status of some of our region's most important natural
resources. Indicators are bits of information that help to
inform us quickly and easily about the status of the environ-
ment and complex environmental issues. Indicators are often
designed to measure or quantify cur-
rent environmental conditions, or
changes or trends over time. They
can focus directly on the quality of
the environment itself, on factors
influencing environmental quality,
or on other issues that are the direct
result of changes in environmental
quality.
We have selected a limited num-
ber of indicators to report because, of
course, it isn't possible to measure
everything. By the same token, indi-
cators, by their very nature, do not
tell the whole story concerning complex issues. Rather, they
are meant to supply "snapshots" of aspects of environmental
health at a given time and place that help us understand a few
specifics and encourage thoughtfulness about the big picture.
Protecting and preserving our environment and natural
resources is everyone's business. We hope this report helps
spark your interest and provides ideas for your participation
in protecting our environment.
The
atfish, cotton fields, grits, and backwater swamps. These are the long-held images of the Southeast. But
we're much more.., globally significant natural resources, fast growing cities, and world-class goods,
services, and industries. These qualities shape our regional heritage and are attracting people to the
Southeast in ever-increasing numbers -- compelling reasons to protect resources through effective envi-
ronmental management.
This report focuses on the nine Southeastern states: Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, South
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. Within these states, we have more wetlands, more
forests, and more miles of rivers, but also a higher growth rate, than any other region in our nation.
Tennessee afl Savannah River basins affor J
The Southeast developed primarily as
~I~P~ ~$9~PC~ an agrarian economy, taking
advantage of the fiat alluvial plains, mild winters, and
abundant rainfall, and continued its agrarian lifestyle well
into the 20th century. Livestock grazing also has a long his-
tory in our region. Revenues from hogs, cattle, and poultry
have accounted for over half of the farming income for
some of our states. Our great Southeastern forests have tra-
ditionally supplied raw materials and income. Timber, pulp,
and paper have been important industries here for more
than a hundred years.
The Southeast boasts some of the most unique natu-
ral resources in the country and in the world:
~ The Florida Everglades is the second largest wet-
land in the world.
~ The Great Smoky Mountains are known worldwide
for extraordinary biological diversity.
~ The only barrier reef in North America is located
off the coast of Florida.
~ The 0kefenokee is one of the largest blackwater
swamps in North America.
~ Thirty-five percent of all wetlands in the lower 48
states are in the Southeast.
But the Southeast is also home to some of the most
distressing natural resource concerns:
~ Twenty percent of the Nation's endangered
ecosystems occur in the Southeast. Our
Southeastern states are among the top 15 states
nationally with the most federally listed threat-
ened or endangered species.
~ Nearly 50 percent of all documented species
extinctions in the U.S. since European settlement
have occurred in the Mobile River Basin in
Alabama.
The
Our region may have no more distinctive attribute, ecolog-
ically speaking, than the extraordinary diversity of fish and
other aquatic species inhabiting its fresh waters -- lakes,
springs, streams, and rivers. In fish, mussels, and crawfish,
for example, the Tennessee-Cumberland ecoregion is the
most species rich in North America.
That's the good news. The bad news is that this incredi-
ble natural richness has been disturbed by every category of
threat to flowing water systems: impoundment, channeliza-
tion, pollution, and rapid urbanization. Hydrological alter-
ations, such as dams, levees, and channel straightening,
have left their mark on practically every stream in the
Mississippi River Valley.
Our region's biodiversity doesn't stop at the water's edge.
The Southeast is also home to a diverse collection of terres-
n'ial, or land-based, species, from large mammals to isolated
pockets of rare plants.
The Mississippi and Atlantic flyways cross the region,
providing critical stopover, breeding, and wintering habitats
for millions of migrating waterfowl, songbirds, and predato-
ry birds each year. For example, the wetlands of the Gulf
Coast provide wintering habitat for more than 400,000
geese and 3 million ducks.
The types and numbers of amphibians and reptiles in the
Southeast are unrivaled anywhere on the continent north of
Mexico. Approximately 290 species of amphibians and rep-
tiles are found here.
Such diversity of animals is dependent on equally
diverse plant communities. In our region, they range
from the vast hardwood forests of the Appalachian
Mountains, to the isolated Carolina Bays of the
coastal plain, to the rapidly disappearing cypress
swamps. The Everglades alone is home to 25 species
of orchids, more than 1,000 species of seed-bearing
cf tlc costs:
billion related
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anisms
billion related to
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plants, 120 species of trees, and more than 300 species of birds.
Unfortunately, terrestrial ecosystems are facing many of
the same threats that confront aquatic communities across
the region. Pollution, rapid urbanization, and habitat frag-
mentation are changing the landscape and threatening the
natural balance upon which they depend.
"Exotic" organisms, meaning organisms that
have permanently established in ecosystems to which they
are not native, are devastating our natural resources.
Though some introductions of exotic species are accidental
and initially escape our attention, many exotic species are
intentionally brought in, including some of the most widely
recognized plants in the Southeast today. Kudzu, the omni.
present vine blanketing our pine and hardwood forests, was
originally introduced in 1876 as an ornamental plant and
was later used for erosion control. Similarly, two fast-grow-
ing trees, Melaleuca and Brazilian pepper, which were intro-
duced for landscaping, are now threatening the Florida
Everglades.
But plants aren't the only invaders. For decades, we've
stocked waterways with non-native fish species for sport and
and human-introduced changes in the Southeast
ken their toll on our natural resources Here are just
few of the sobering statistics:
~ Loss of 98 percent of our Iongleaf pine forests by 1986
~ Seventy-eight percent reduction in pre-settlement bot-
tomland, hardwood forests
~ Loss of 28 percent of all pre-settlement wetlands in the
coastal plain by 1986
Loss of 15 percent of our Atlantic and Gulf coastal bar-
rier island habitat by 1975 due to urbanization.
consumption. Some of the impacts are as straightforward as
larger, exotic fish preying on the smaller, native fish species, or
zebra mussels in the Cahaba River basin competing with
native species for food. Other impacts are much more compli-
cated. For example, grass carp, which have been used to con-
trol aquatic vegetation, can alter the complex food web upon
which an entire aquatic ecosystem depends.
Other exotic species can directly threaten human health.
University of South Florida researchers have found "vast
colonies" of human viruses that regularly migrate into coastal
waters from septic tanks, infecting shellfish and threatening
human swimmers as well. About 40 percent of the Florida
shrimp studied carried viruses that affect humans.
Changes such as warmer water temperatures may
encourage new species, including viruses, which can better
tolerate the warmer environment. Warmer water is being
blamed for the development of devastating parasitic oyster
diseases along the Eastern Seaboard, where oyster harvests
plummeted from millions of bushels annually to an all-time
low of about 14,000 bushels in 1998.
~ ~h~t ~h~t P~I~? Our population's over-
all health can be compared to the rest of the country's by
evaluating the rates of several major health conditions. The
news isn't good. Age-adjusted mortality rates due to all can-
cers, stroke, and other lung and respiratory diseases have all
been high in the Southeast.
The
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163-190
191-208
209-223
The
he Southeast has also long been known for its natural abundance in forests, minerals, and coastal fish-
ing resources. Forestry-related industries (including lumber, paper mills, and furniture production); agri-
cultural products; coal and petroleum extraction; and the tourism that flourishes along our coasts,
mountains and waterways are all part of our economic heritage.
While much has changed in the Southeast over time, our reliance on the land and natural resources for
our economic vitality has not. World War II catapulted industrial growth in the Southeast, with conver-
sion of many government-owned lands to military bases for training, weapons manufacture, and in later
years, support for the space program. The military's presence here is greater than in any other region of the
country, and because of its presence, private-sector support and manufacturing businesses have also made
the Southeast their home. In addition to playing a key role in advancing the military's mission,
Southeastern military facilities also contribute significantly to the region's economy. For example, the
Department of Defense contributes about $15.4 billion annually to Georgia's economy alone.
is greater thafl in any other reg~ofl of the coufltry,
because o~ ~ts ~resence~
~ ~~i~ ~t~ Significant land area
in the Southeast is dedicated to resource harvesting. Despite
this fact, direct revenues from agricultural and forest har.
vests, combined with commercial fisheries harvests, are only
two to three percent of our states' Gross State Product
(GSP). Much more significant is the" gnbusmess or prod-
uct-processing industries the resource harvests support. Food
processing, typically meat, baked goods, and fruits and veg-
etables, is economically dominant in all of our states except
Alabama and South Carolina.
Textiles industries have traditionally thrived in North
Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, due to the proximi-
ty of raw materials -- especially cotton. Today, textile man-
ufacturing is still economically significant in the Carolinas,
Georgia, and Virginia, although it's heavily supported by
chemical and synthetic fiber manufacturing.
~P@~ ~C~OP~ In recent years, the automobile
manufacturing sector has moved to the Southeast, bringing
with it parts manufacturing suppliers. In 1980, Toyota
opened an assembly plant in Kentucky, and by 1989, an
additional 80 parts manufacturing facilities had opened
there. Tennessee is now home to Saturn and Nissan plants;
South Carolina has BMW; Alabama has Mercedes-Benz,
Honda, and Navistar (truck manufacturing); and Georgia
has General Motors and Ford.
Motor vehicles, primary metals, and fabricated metals
are economically significant industrial sectors in Alabama,
Kentucky, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Electronics man-
ufacturing has also grown, largely in support of auto manu.
facturing, as well as to support space industry needs and the
burgeoning communications and other "high tech" sectors
increasingly attracted to the Southeast.
tion prevention for reducing its use of toxic
chemicals by 88 percent and generating
$790,000 in annual savings.
these sectors provide us with some of our most critical and
basic utilities and services.
As for air pollution, just five industrial sectors account
for half of the total amount of chemicals released into the air
from regulated industries -- with 18 percent attributable to
the plastic materials and synthetic fibers industry alone. The
other four top contributors are pulp mills, miscellaneous
plastic products, paperboard mills, and industrial organic
chemicals. However, it's important to note that in many
urban areas, vehicle emissions are the most significant
source of toxic chemicals released into the air.
P®t ®. What impacts do industries
have on our environment? Current estimates suggest three
sectors are responsible for about 96 percent of all the
reported chemical releases into water: crude petroleum and
natural gas, publicly owned sewage treatment plants, and
federal or military facilities. It's important to note that
Saturn Corporation plant in Tennessee
is a national model for pollution prevention,
because of its plant design and because it
sets high pollution prevention standards for
all of its suppliers.
~iO~ ~P~¥~}~iO~ With the increased populari-
ty of the Sunbelt and the growing emphasis of our state and
local governments on economic development, more and more
businesses are locating here. Many of these businesses, even
when operating in full compliance with existing environmen-
tal laws and regulations, will use and dispose of small quanti-
ties of toxic substances. Though individually small, those
quantities will cumulatively amount to hundreds, if not thou-
sands, of additional pounds of chemicals in the environment.
That's why Pollution Prevention (or p2) is critically important.
As a philosophy and practice, it goes beyond mere compliance
with environmental laws and regulations m achieve continu-
ous reductions in the amounts of waste generated and released
into the environment. At the same time, businesses operate
more efficiently and save money. For example, the recent shift
towards automobile manufacturing in the Southeast brought
the opportunity to incorporate state-of-the-art facilities and p2
technologies into operations from the outset.
P~ 8~CC~ i~ 1~ C~P~Ii~8~ Federal and
state efforts have resulted in a number of innovative p2 suc-
cesses in our region. The State of North Carolina, for exam-
pie, in conjunction with the Environmental Protection
Agency's Common Sense Initiative, held Pl training sessions
and provided assessments in three of its cities. The sessions
targeted metal finishers who dispose of their wastes in
municipal sewer systems. They were shown ways to reduce
or virtually eliminate heavy metal wastes. The metals often
entered nearby streams after passing through a sewage treat-
ment plant, or they accumulated in the sludges produced by
the sewage treatment process. The voluntary p2 measures
not only prevented the chemicals from ever reaching the
waterways or sludges, but also demonstrated how money,
materials, and operating costs could be saved.
In South Carolina, the Medical University of South
Carolina and the State's p2 technical assistance program
instituted a program of p2 assessments and training for hos-
pitals throughout the state. Medical waste incinerators are a
significant source of mercury pollution into the atmosphere.
Once it's in the atmosphere, mercury can be re-deposited in
rivers and streams, leading to contamination of the water,
sediments, and fish tissues. The South Carolina program ~s
showing hospitals how to segregate their mercury-contami-
nated waste from their other waste, dispose of it properly,
and minimize the use of mercury in day-to-day operations
through product substitutions. Medical instruments and
equipment such as thermometers and blood pressure
manometers that have traditionally contained mercury are
being substituted for non-mercury alternatives.
g~P¥ig~ S~Pg Economic change in the United
States has traditionally followed a progression from an agri-
culture-based economy, to a manufacturing-based economy,
to a service-based economy. That pattern holds true for the
Southeast, where service sectors now collectively contribute
two-thirds to three-quarters of the revenue in our states.
Service sectors are all the businesses that aren't natural
resource, construction, or manufacturing based. They include
hospitality, tourism, financial, and real estate businesses; auto-
mobile dealerships; grocery stores; gas and service stations;
wholesale and retail establishments; and restaurants. Auto-
related services, for example, occupy one or more of the top
three positions of economic significance in each state.
It's difficult to make direct comparisons between contri-
butions of toxic contaminants from regulated industries and
pollution from non-regulated or diffuse sources (such as pri-
vate automobiles or pavement runoff). Although they've
traditionally been considered "clean" businesses, a prolifera-
tion of services can have indirect, negative impacts on our
environmental. Those impacts are intricately linked to the
land development practices in the places where most servic-
es are provided: cities and suburbs.
ost of the Southeast remained rural through the turn of the 20th century. In the 1940s, industries
such as manufacturing (textile and metals), pulp and paper mills, mining, and chemical operations
began to diversify the region's agricultural economy. By the 1960s and '70s, major corporations were
headquartering their businesses here, and the "New South" was born. Cities boomed and immigration
from other parts of the country increased like never before. The Southeast's economy finally began to
catch up with the nation's.
~P~8~ ~Pek~ During the 1930s and '40s, millions
of people moved from rural areas to the big cities in search
of new jobs. But this new immigration quickly reversed. By
the '50s, a combination of overcrowded, in-town housing
and growing incomes, coupled with the infamous "baby
boom" that fbllowed World War II, prompted families to
seek larger homes on larger lots, away from the congestion
of the cities. Migration of racial and ethnic minorities into
central cities during the 1950s and '60s was also an impetus
for many white families to move to the suburbs. Nationally,
growth was 10 times higher in the suburbs than in cities, and
by 1970, for the first time in U.S. history, more people lived
in the suburbs than in cities or on farms.
Urban growth has brought many positive changes to the
Southeast, including the diversification of our population
and economy, but there have been costs to the environ-
ment. When land is developed, native plant communities
and wildlife habitats are removed or fragmented. They are
replaced by impervious surfaces such as pavement, roads,
wide variety of pesticides are the most common. Runoff
from impervious surfaces may also be heated to an extent
that is harmful to trout and other temperature-sensitive
species in streams. Scientists have found that when the
proportion of impervious surfaces in a watershed exceeds
10 percent, streams in that watershed are almost certain to
develop poor water quality.
Urbanization also brings.., people!.., in greater num-
bers and densities, driving cars, burning energy, using vari-
ous chemicals and other products, and disposing of wastes.
And because of the nature of human activities, impacts
extend far beyond the immediate footprint of the urban
area. The net result for the environment is deteriorated air
and water quality, and an irreversible loss or displacement of
the native biota.
parking lots, and rooftops areas where rain water cannot
infiltrate into the ground. Water ~'runs off" these surfhces
and eventually enters nearby waterways via storm sewers.
carrying a host of pollutants. Motor oil and various other
petroleum products, dirt and silt. litter and debris, and a
~P~~ ~P@~ Many land development impacts
appear inevitable and unavoidable, but this isn't true of the
impacts associated with exceedingly rapid, poorly planned,
or unrestrained growth. The word "sprawl" is used to describe
low-density, retail-based, car-dependent development locat-
ed farther and farther away from historical urban centers.
Sprawl occurs when the rate at which open land is consumed
greatly exceeds the rate of population growth.
Atlanta has been called the fastest growing city ever in
the history of civilization. Metropolitan Atlanta nearly
doubled in size in the 1990s, going from about 65 miles
from north to south in early 1990, to 110 miles by the end
of the decade. According to the U.S. Census Bureau,
Atlanta is now the least dense of all major U.S. metropoli-
tan areas (approximately 1,366 persons per square mile).
Atlantans are among the people in the nation who do the
most driving -- an average 37.3 miles per day per man,
woman, and child.
}~t~ @~ ~P~ The impacts of sprawl are far-
reaching and include the following: increased traffic conges-
tion and a more hectic pace of life; a lost sense of commu-
nity for suburbanites and rural residents; loss of rural scenic
beauty; deterioration of inner city infrastructure and eco-
nomic vitality; a prevalence of abandoned, aged industrial
Loss of farms, open spaces, and forested lands to urban development
Increased runoff of toxic pollutants into waterways from impervious
surfaces, and increased sediment erosion from construction sites
Deteriorated air quality due to over-dependency on automobiles
properties in inner cities; and increased taxpayer burden due
to the high cost of constructing and expanding utilities far-
ther and farther from the historic urban core.
The environmental pollution stemming from sprawl
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isn't always easy to quantify or directly measure, and many
of the pollution sources can't be controlled through con-
ventional, environmental regulatory programs.
One effect that has been measured is the impact sprawl
is having on urban temperatures. NASA scientists discov-
ered that when Atlanta suburbs expanded and eliminated
350,000 acres of forest between 1973 and 1998, the city
grew hotter by eight to 10 degrees. Dark roofs, streets, park-
ing lots, and other pavements in urban areas act as giant
solar panels, soaking up sunlight during the day and releas-
ing heat at night. This phenomenon, known as the "urban
heat island effect," is so dramatic it can trigger the formation
of summer thunderstorms over urban areas. Today, the
greater Atlanta area continues to lose tree cover at a rate of
about 50 acres per day.
Driving a personal car is probably the average person's most
polluting daily activity, and several of our region's cities are
now struggling under burdens imposed by the resulting
compromised air quality. Since 1970, Americans have
increased their driving 100 percent, and more than a quar-
ter of the vehicle miles traveled on our roads today are asso-
ciated with employee commute trips.
Since the 1960s, auto emissions have gotten increasing-
ly cleaner. Today's vehicles emit 70 percent less nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and 80 to 90 percent less volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs). But pollution from growing vehicle use and
traffic congestion threatens to offset and overwhelm the air
quality benefits of today's cleaner cars and fuels. Trucks,
buses, and cars idling in traffic waste billions of gallons of
fuel and emit millions of tons of pollutants each year, which
contribute significantly to smog formation.
Pollution from cars comes from byproducts of the com-
bustion process, as well as from evaporation of the fuel
itself. The major component of smog formed from these
processes is ozone: an odorless, colorless gas. Ozone in the
upper atmosphere occurs naturally and protects life on
earth by filtering out ultraviolet radiation. Ground level
ozone, which forms when other pollutants, NOx and
VOCs, react with sunlight, is harmful to humans and
ecosystems. People most at risk from exposure to ground
level ozone are children, adults who are active outdoors,
and people with respiratory diseases. Ozone is responsible
for the choking, coughing, and stinging eyes we've come to
associate with smog.
wr~inhaled, even at Iow levels, ozone can
Cause acute respiratory problems
Aggravate asthma
Cause temporary decreases in lung capacity
of 15-20 percent in some healthy adults
Cause inflammation of lung tissue
Lead to hospital admissions and emergency
room visits related to respiratory
illness
Impair the body's immune system defenses
Cause cancer, and reproductive and neuro-
logical problems
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s~stai~ab~e
~le~me~ ia 1992 as:
the
meet the# own
at® aa v® t® agencies have made
tremendous progress over the past few decades in solving
major pollution problems. But even if we enforced every envi-
ronmental regulation currently on the books to the fullest
extent, continued sprawl would still make it impossible to
pass on to our children an environment of the quality we've
enjoyed. That's why "Sustainable Development" is so impor-
tant. Sustainable Development is a strategy that makes a pos-
itive connection between protecting the environment and
supporting social and economic development. Sustainable
communities act to improve their overall quality of life.
A closely related concept, "Smart Growth," focuses on
managing sprawl while improving total quality of life. It
involves finding new sources of economic vitality for rural
towns and counties; preserving scenic beauty and other envi-
ronmental assets of open spaces; creating livable, new com-
munities; and rejuvenating decaying cities and older suburbs.
are full of abandoned properties, called "Brownfields," which
were previously sites of industrial operations. Purchasers and
lenders are wary of acquiring them because of the additional
cost and liability they could pose during development if they're
found to be contaminated. EPA's Brownfields Initiative reduces
some of the risks associated with acquiring these sites by assist-
ing communities with assessment and clean up. Through this
program, Charlotte, North Carolina's abandoned industrial dis-
trict will soon be home to a vibrant, new, retail community,
Camden Square. This project, which will have shops, restau-
rants, and design-related businesses, is integral to the revitaliza-
tion of Charlotte's 100 year-old industrial district.
The Southeast is home to one of the 16 Brownfields
"Showcase Communities" nationwide, the Eastward Ho!
project in Southeast Florida. Showcase communities are
intended to promote environmental protection, economic
redevelopment and community revitalization through
assessment, cleanup, and reuse of Brownfields. They also
demonstrate the positive results of public and private col-
laboration, by linking federal, state, local, and non-govern-
mental efforts. The Eastward Ho! project is revitalizing
Southeast Florida's historic urban core and alleviating
development pressures on the imperiled Everglades.
Hugh L. McColl, Jr.
Chairman and CEO, BankAmerica Corp.
~i~g Th~P~ ~P~P Transportation con-
trol measures are becoming increasingly popular as a
means of reducing automobile pollution and encouraging
changes in the ways people travel. Communities across
our region and country are rediscovering the virtues of
mass transit, ride sharing, telecommuting, work schedule
changes, parking management, and roadway tolls. Most
car emissions are produced during the first 15 minutes
that a car is running, so strategies that eliminate or reduce
short trips deliver the most bang for the buck. And auto
emissions can be greatly reduced when several strategies
are combined.
The Southern Appalachian Mountain chain is one of the most significant features of our Southeastern
landscape, covering more than 37 million acres from northern Alabama to Virginia. The eastern por-
tion is dominated by the rugged and diverse Blue Ridge Mountains, which rise abruptly from the
Piedmont Province and reach their highest point at 6,684-foot Mount Mitchell in North Carolina. Oak
and hickory forests occur at the lower elevations; spruce and fir forests occupy the mountain tops.
Variations in elevation and rock and soil types, and associated variations in climactic conditions account
for the area's rich biological diversity.
West of the Blue Ridge Province is the Ridge and Valley Province, also known as The Great Valley, which
is home to most of the Southern Appalachians' human population. This terrain is rolling to hilly, with
southwest running ridges. Predominant land uses are cropland, pastures, and forests. To the west of the
Great Valley are the mountains and ridges of the Cumberland Plateau, where coal mining has been an eco-
nomic mainstay for decades.
Many of the issues affecting the rest of the Southeast
have special significance in the mountains. These include
air pollution, poor water quality, forest pests, and habitat
losses. The same pressures of human development affecting
environmental quality around metropolitan areas are
increasingly being felt in rural areas, as more people live
closer to forests and mountains.
Air pollution is not confined to cities; it can be transported
hundreds of miles from its source, impacting broad regions of
rural resources. Visibility in the mountains began to deteri-
orate in the 1940s, with the poorest visibility in the summer,
when tourists flocked to the mountains. Impaired visiloility,
or "haze," is caused when light encounters tiny pollution
particles and some gases in the air.
Environmental analyses have indicated that sulfates and
organic compounds are the major contributors to haze;
nitrate and soil and dust particles contribute to a lesser
extent. Sulfur dioxide emitted during fossil fuel combustion
is transformed into sulfate particles, which are attracted to
water vapor in the atmosphere. In combination with water,
sulfate particles, and to a lesser extent organic particles, act
to scatter light and decrease visibility. Nationally, coal-fired
electric plants are the major source of sulfur dioxide. The
most important sources of organic compounds and nitrate
are coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles.
Watershed acidification occurs when nitrate and sulfate par-
ticles fi'om the atmosphere are deposited in streams and soils.
The particles remove essential nutrients for tree growth,
increase the availability of toxic metals and lower the pH of
the water. In the Southern Appalachians, the most sensitive
waterways are the headwaters and other upland streams,
where the blood chemistry and gill function of sensitive fish
species are altered. The most sensitive forest types are the
high-elevation, spruce fir communities with naturally acidic
soils, where the addition of more acid from the atmosphere
can severely disrupt the f, '
orest s nutrient dynamics.
Ozone, a chemical compound of three oxygen atoms, is a
powerful oxidant that is highly damaging or fatal to plant
tissues. Symptoms of ozone injury in leaves of sensitive
species, such as black cherry, tulip poplar, and American
sycamore, have been observed throughout the Southern
Appalachians. The primary source of elevated ozone levels
in the Appalachians is motor vehicle emissions.
minerals and metals always have been part of ()ur
Southeastern heritage and economy. In addition to provid-
ing jobs, mining of these important natural resources helps
meet the nation's energy needs, and supplies raw materials
that are essential to consumer goods, industry, and con-
struction. Mining revenues aren't a significant portion of
our gross state products and mines occupy very little land
area, but several Southeastern states are leading producers of
many important minerals.
Past mining operations have caused serious environmental
damage in the mountains, in the form of acid drainage from
abandoned coal mines. Acid drainage has contaminated
mountain streams and harmed or destroyed the plant and
animal life in them. Some former mining sites were subse-
quently used for hazardous materials storage or waste dispos-
al, which has exacerbated the environmental damage. EPA
has identified acid drainage from abandoned mines as the
primary environmental quality problem in Appalachia, and
cleaning it up is very difficult and expensive.
Since 1977, federal law has prevented mining from cre-
ating acid drainage problems, and has provided for clean-up
of old, abandoned sites. Fees are collected from active, sur-
face coal mining operations and put into a federal
Abandoned Mine Land program fund. States are provided
money from this fund for cleaning up their abandoned sites.
EPA's Superfund program works with states to evaluate con-
taminated sites and identify the highest priorities for
cleanups.
The practice of removing minerals from the topmost part of
mountains has been used in the Southern Appalachians for
about 20 years now. Operators flatten the mountain tops
during mining to make them topographically suitable for
subsequent land uses after the mining is completed. People
who favor the practice argue that it's extremely beneficial
because land leveling in mountainous terrain is expensive
and difficult. Once the land is leveled, it becomes valuable
for commercial timber; farming; recreation; industrial, com-
mercial or residential development; schools; correctional
facilities; and many other uses.
Opponents say the practice destroys the mountains' aes-
thetic character and environment, fills in streambeds, and
undermines the area's heritage by fostering unrestricted devel-
opment. Though the practice is still allowed at this point,
public debate over it may rage on for many years to come.
Now, mandatory mining permits ensure that today's mines
don't become tomorrow's Superfund sites. After mining at a
site has been completed, companies are required to restore the
land to its original contour
(except for mountain tops)
and return it to productive
use. Also, resources that
were originally present,
such as timber, wildlife,
and fish, must be replen-
ished. Mine operators are
also required to contain all
of the acid drainage leav-
ing their sites, and control
soil erosion.
Only about 35 percent of the high priority coal mining
sites nationwide have been reclaimed. The great majority of
the sites that haven't been cleaned up yet (about 90 per-
cent) are located in only eight states, including Kentucky in
the Southeast.
Post-mining land use changes can have long term, eco-
nomic, environmental, and social benefits for areas that tra-
ditionally relied on mining. In fact, changes in land use fre-
quently go hand in hand with an area's economic revival.
~P~t ~9~ ~9~t~i~$ Authorized by Congress
in 1926, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park was
established in 1934 and was one of the first national parks cre-
ated from private lands. It is the gem of the Southern
Appalachians and has been called "the people's park,"
Natio~;a)~¥, the coal
reclaimed mere thaa
two millioa ac~'es of
mioed )aad over the
past 20 yea~s ~-~- aa
)a~se~ ~haa the State
o~ ~e~awa;e~
because of the outpouring of donations from citizens to pur-
chase and protect the park. The Park comprises more than a
half million acres and serves as refuge for one of the richest
and most diverse collections of plants and animals in the
temperate world. No place this size in a temperate climate can
match the Park's variety of plant and animal species: more
tree species than in northern Europe; 1,500 flowering plants;
dozens of native fish; and more than 200 species of birds and
60 of mammals. But while we know the Park possesses a vast
and varied assemblage of life forms, there is still much we
don't know. For instance, by some estimates the Park possess-
es more than 100,000 species, excluding bacteria -- yet, we
have identified only a small percentage of them.
A number of existing and impending threats to the Park's
species diversity are cause for concern, vigilance, and action.
Forests are threatened by non-native insects and diseases,
such as the balsam woolly adelgid, dogwood anthracnose,
Chinese chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease, beech bark dis-
ease, hemlock woolly adelgid, and the gypsy moth. More con-
spicuous alien species are also damaging natural systems. The
European wild hog, for example, damages kagile natural com-
munities by rooting for grubs, salamanders, and roots, while
competing with native species for food. The balsam wooly
adelgid, an insect pest, has killed most of the mature Fraser
firs in the Smokies over the past 30 years, and the gypsy moth
has defoliated much of the eastern hardwood forest.
The Smokies also receive some of the highest deposition
levels of nitrates and sulfates in eastern North America;
ground level ozone has harmed dozens of plant species and
may harm animal life as well. In addition, urban develop-
menr at the Park's periphery has accelerated at an alarming
rate, fragmenung and disrupting many biological communi-
ties. These and other threats causing serious ~mpacts on the
Park's ecosystems natural systems can often be lessened or
prevented by park managers using a variety of tools. A com-
prehensive species inventory will help park managers make
informed decisions when prioritizing actions to protect the
Park's biodiversity.
griculture has always been important to our region. Florida is known for its citrus, as well as for straw-
berries, tomatoes, lettuce, and celery. Georgia was the first state to grow cotton and run a successful
cotton mill. Peaches are sweet in South Carolina. Mississippi is swimming in catfish -- and tobacco is
still important in Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee (although it's being rapidly replaced
by other agricultural commodities).
Agriculture contributes beauty to our landscapes,
provides livelihoods for people in rural communi-
ties, feeds our growing cities, and supplies the nation
with many important products. Unfortunately, agri-
culture has also been identified as a primary cause of
surface water pollution in our region and throughout
the nation. Eroded soil particles from croplands,
often with nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus com-
pounds) and other chemicals attached, enter nearby
rivers and streams, and impair their water quality.
a relative ranking
based on pounds
applied per year.
Over the past two decades, the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and American farmers
have made significant strides in reducing cropland erosion
through soil-conserving practices such as crop residue man.
agement, contour tillage, stripcropping, and la~ retirement. In
addition to protecting waterways, these newer practices can
improve overall soil condition and productivity and help
reduce the amount of greenhouse gas
released into the atmosphere. However,
although cropland erosion is on the
decline nationally, adoption of some of the
newer practices has generally been slower in the
Southeast than elsewhere in the country.
P~ligid~ Ug~ Pesticides are chemicals designed to
kill, control, or repel insects, plant diseases, weeds, rodents,
and germs. Now a standard part of most farming operations,
pesticides are one reason why farm productivity has
increased 82 percent in the past thirty years. They are also
used to ward off unwanted organisms in homes, schools,
parks, hospitals, and office buildings. Seventy-four percent of
American households (or 70 million) used some type of pes-
ticide in 1994, at a cost of $1.9 billion.
Within the past three decades, pesticide use in agriculture,
homes, and industries has increased by 50 percent. Total use
in the U.S. (including wood preservatives and disinfectants)
is about 2.2 billion pounds of active ingredients annually, or
eight pounds for every man, woman, and child in the country.
Misuse and improper management of pesticides can pose
serious threats to public health, particularly to infants and
children. Children's exposure to pesticides is greater than
adults' because of their dietary and play habits. Being phys-
iologically immature also makes them more susceptible to
the toxic effects.
Case reports and epidemiological studies show a link
between pesticide exposure and the development of certain
cancers in children, including leukemia, sarcomas, and brain
tumors. In addition, most major classes of pesticides adverse-
ly affect the developing nervous systems of experimental ani-
mals, impairing both mental and motor development.
Parental overexposure to pesticides, due to misuse or
improper storage, has been associated with the development
of certain cancers and birth defects in offspring. And some
studies suggest that exposure to pesticides may compromise
the immune systems of infants and children and increase
their risk of infection and disease.
Although information implicating the hazards of pesti-
cides has been accumulating under the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, government action to ade-
quately protect the public, particularly children, has been
insufficient. Fortunately, more and more concerned citizens
throughout the nation are becoming involved, and commu-
nity leaders are showing people how to reduce the need for
pesticides and protect the health and
well-being of their communities.
~i~ ~$~ Poor management
of waste from animal feeding operations is
one of the biggest causes of surface water
pollution in our region and nationally.
Animal waste includes livestock and
poultry manure, bedding and litter, feed-
lot runoff, silage juices from trench silos,
and wasted feed. Waste from unprotected
animal holding areas and manure storage
areas washes into streams and estuaries,
where it causes excessive algae growth,
fish kills, unpleasant taste and odors, and
generally adverse conditions for aquatic
Poor management of
waste from animal feeding operations
is one of the biggest causes of
life. Likewise, when it seeps into the ground, the ground
water quality can be jeopardized, and because animal waste
can carry waterborne pathogens, human health can be
threatened if a drinking water source is contaminated.
Individual site conditions, such as steep or unprotected
slopes, eroded soils, lack of vegetative cover, heavy rains and
proximity to streams, play an important role in the potential
for environmental damage.
examples of how animal feeding opera-
re better mana i
· g ng waste:
~ Minimizing runoff and erosion on land where
waste is applied
Not allowing collection lagoons to overflow
Protecting existing wetlands and adding veg-
etated filter strips along streams to trap sedi-
merit and other pollutants
Diverting barnyard runoff away from streams
and ponds
Keeping livestock away from stream banks
and wetlands
Compounding the threat from animal waste is the fact
that the past couple of decades have seen an explosive
growth of high-density operauons, often called "Megafarms"
or "factory farms." which house large numbers of animals
and produce large amounts of animal waste. For example,
the number of hogs nationally from farms with 200 or fewer
head per year fell 44 percent from 1982 to 1992, while the
number from farms with 5,000 or more head per year
increased 257 percent.
When properly managed, animal waste can be a valuable
agricultural resource. It's an economical source of nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and other plant nutrients, and it can
reduce the need for commercial fertilizers, which tend to
degrade soils over time. Animal waste is also useful for
adding organic matter to the soil, which improves the soil's
water holding capacity.
As awareness of the problem of animal waste grows, more
and more animal feeding operations are putting protective
practices into place, referred to as best management practices or
BMPs, to manage their animal waste and reduce threats to
waterways. BMPs typically involve the use of facilities, struc-
tures, management strategies, and/or vegetative cover.
F~P~ L~$$~ Throughout our history, changes in
use and management of private lands have occurred in
response to economic, social, or other forces. In the
Southeast, millions of acres that were once productive crop-
land are now covered by forests, and vast areas of the lower
Mississippi Basin, which were originally bottomland hard-
wood forests, are now farmed. Also, millions of acres of
Southeastern crop land have been converted to residential,
commercial, or industrial uses.
While the total acreage of farmland in the U.S. has
remained roughly the same since the 1920s, the number of
farms has decreased dramatically. Large and small farms
have increased in number nationally, but farms in the mid-
sized category have declined. The significance of this trend
is that the pattern of increasing numbers of small farms,
coupled with the rapid growth of urban areas, intensifies the
likelihood of "edge effects," or conflicts arising from the
proximity of the two very different land uses.
Incompatibility between new urban areas and agricultur-
al practices and lifestyles can bring unwelcome surprises,
both for the homeowners moving into the traditionally rural
area, and the remaining, nearby farms. Farm odors, dust, and
has been converted to urban use.
Four percent of the state's total
farmland, 436,000 acres, was
developed between 1982 and 1992.
Of that amount, more than one third
was prime or unique farmland.
-- (American Farmland Trust)
afl the growth of
ifl{ fihood "edge effects."
off-hour operational noises -- for example tractors operat-
ing at night or in the early morning as well as other envi-
ronmental by-products of agricultural operations, often elic-
it complaints from neighboring non-farmers. Similarly, the
arrival of non-farm residences can have some unwelcome
effects on farms: rising taxes, severe crop damage from toxic
urban runoff, and damage to crops, fences, eqmpment, and
other farm property from increased human trespass onto
farm property. Zoning regulations at the county or local gov-
ernment level are often necessary to prevent conflicts
between farming operations and non-farm residences.
Why should we care about farm losses? The reasons are
myriad, but the most basic is the need to ensure adequate
food production for the future. Prime farmland, m particu-
lar, ~s a unique and irreplaceable resource which, once lost.
a f]ack af seese
So~th ia the fa~L'
he Tennessee, the Suwannee, the Mighty Mississippi... our rivers are part of the very fabric of our
Southeastern identity. Since the earliest times, they've been a source of food, recreation, transporta-
tion, and livelihoods. The Mississippi, for example, may be the most renowned of our nation's great
rivers. It's 2,340 miles long, the longest river in North America, and its delta region is one of the richest
farm belts in the country. Or consider the New River which, despite its name, is the oldest river in North
America -- an estimated 320 million years old.
~iO}~i~ lm~P~ Fresh water covers less
than one percent of the earth's surface and comprises less
than one hundredth of a percent of the planet's total water.
Nevertheless, freshwater rivers and lakes are home to
approximately 12 percent of all animals and about 41 per-
cent of the known fish species.
The nvers of the Southeast, according to the World
Wildlife Fund, are among the most diverse temperate fresh-
water ecosystems in the world, but they're being rapidly
altered by changes in water quality and quantity, habitat
degradation, and exotic species.
The Clinch River in Tennessee supports the largest
number of globally imperiled, freshwater species in the
country. Together with the Powell River, the Clinch boasts
a collection of freshwater mussels unmatched anywhere.
The Altamaha River watershed of south Georgia has 130
species of rare and endangered plants and animals, including
seven pearly mussel species that aren't found anywhere else.
Freshwater mussels are one of the most diverse, yet
endangered groups of animals in the Southeast, which is
home to over two-thirds of the species of freshwater mussels
known in the world! Many of these species are on the
decline because of poor water quality, loss of habitat, and
loss of host fishes for the specialized parasitic larval stage.
Most endangered species in the Southeast have declined
because of dwindling and fragmented habitats. However, 70
percent of the habitat needed for recovery occurs on private
land, highlighting the need for citizen involvement in pro-
tecting and recovering these species.
~t~PS~ ~9~t Protecting stream biodi-
versity isn't easy. A stream corridor or valley is a complex
ecosystem made up of the land, plants, animals, and a net-
work of smaller streams in the landscape. Human activities
directly upslope or even many miles upstream may affect a
river's ability to renew itself and support aquatic life.
Scientists and others concerned with river health know
that protecting a river's watershed, or natural drainage
basin, is the key to protecting biological diversity.
such as a lake, river, stream,
or estuary. It can range in area
from the size of a backyard to
the expanse of the continent that
empties into the Gulf of Mexico.
S0~PC~ @~ ~i¥~P P~ti~ Just as popula-
tion and production around the Southeast have steadily
risen, so have the demands on our waterways. EPA's 1998
National Water Quality Inventory found that 65 percent of
the stream segments inventoried were fully capable of sup-
porting the "beneficial uses" (for example, drinking water
supply, fish and wildlife habitat, and swimming) they pro-
vided in the past. Water quality in the remaining 35 per-
cent of streams inventoried was degraded to an extent that
interfered with one or more of the uses.
We've known for over a decade that most of the pollu-
tion in our rivers, lakes, and estuaries isn't caused by regu-
lated industries or other "point" sources. Instead, it comes
from numerous, indistinct and untraceable sources that each
deposit pollutants on the landscape. Those contaminants
are collectively delivered to waterways by rainwater and
snowmelt "running off" the land. We refer to this multitude
of pollution contributors as non-point sources.
Regionally and nationally, agriculture is the single, most
important cause of water quality degradation in our rivers.
Agricultural runoff often contains fertilizers, pesticides, top-
soil, and silt that upset or destroy the physical and biologi-
cal integrity of rivers. Sediments and excess nutrients (nitro-
gen and phosphorous compounds) are the two most signifi-
cant pollutants.
While not reaching the causal proportions of agriculture,
municipal sewers and urban runoff are also significant contrib-
utors to surface water pollution. Urban runoff from hard sur-
faces such as concrete and asphalt typically contains motor oil,
antifreeze, gasoline, and other petroleum residues. Other typi-
cal pollutants in urban runoff are household and commercial
cleaning products, and fertilizers and pesticides from residential
lawns and commercial landscaping. In fact, the U.S.
Geological Survey's (USGS) National Water Quality Assessment
(NAWQA) program found that commercial insecticides occur
more often, and usually at higher concentrations, in urban
streams than in agricultural streams. This is despite the fact that
urban areas cover less than 5 percent of the country compared
to more than 50 percent for agricultural lands. Insecticides,
which are generally more hannful to aquatic life than herbi-
cides, were found in virtually every urban stream sampled by
NAWQA, frequently at levels exceeding federal water quality
guidelines.
Today, interest in controlling polluted runoff and restor-
ing the health of urban and rural stream corridors is expand-
ing nationally and internationally.
polluted waters can accumulate chemicals in their tissues to
concentrations that are much greater than the concentra-
tion of the chemical in the water. State environmental and
health agencies issue fish consumption advisories to warn
the public of non commercial fishing areas where pollutant
concentrations in edible fish have reached levels that are
potentially harmful to humans. The advisories may indicate
which are generally more harmful to
aquatic life than herbicides, were found
Jn virtually every urban stream sampled
by NAWQA, frequently at levels exceeding
federal water quality guidelJnes.
that a particular type of fish shouldn't be eaten at all, or
should be eaten only in limited quantities.
The State of Florida, for example, has issued fish advi-
sories throughout the Everglades, one of our most distinctive
aquatic ecosystems, warning people to limit their consump-
tion of fish from those waters. Unfortunately, once an area
becomes contaminated to an extent that warrants an advi-
sory, it often remains contaminated for a very long time.
~P ~~ ~ ~ Water quantity and
quality are intricately linked and interdependent factors,
which must be delicately balanced for effective resource
management.
The U.S. has 3.6 million miles of rivers. Roughly 14 per-
cent of them are in the Southeast, covering about 4 percent
of our region's total land area. Water from Southeastern
rivers and streams is put to a variety of uses for the benefit
of society. In 1990, Southeastern states withdrew almost 60
billion gallons of fresh water per day from area surface
waters. Thermoelectric power generation was the largest use
(more than half), though only a small fraction of that water
was actually used up. Most of it was sent back into the envi-
ronment and became available for other uses. About 5 per-
cent of regional withdrawals were used for irrigation, and
domestic use accounted for about 6 percent.
The country's recent economic prosperity, regional pop-
ulation growth, and two years of near-record drought con-
ditions have all placed unprecedented stresses on our exist-
ing water sources. These stresses are further complicated by
increased pressure to leave water in streams and rivers for
environmental and recreational needs, as well as by the fact
that the 20th century means of increasing water supplies --
building more dams -- is no longer viable. Today the focus
in water management is increasingly on entire river basins
and watersheds, sometimes spanning multiple states. And
increasingly, threats of shortages are looming. Effective
water management and conservation strategies will be more
important for meeting our region's water needs than ever
before.
The gOod news is that the public and industrial conser-
va~ion programs, improved teChnologies and plant efficien-
cies, and more efficient irrigation systems and techniques
all appear to be moving us in right direction. According to
the USGS's Trends in Water Use report, though the coun-
try's population grew by 6 percent from 1990 to 1995,
freshwater withdrawals for public water supply only rose
about 4 percent, and most other categories of use declined.
However, as the region's population continues to increase,
placing higher demands on existing supplies for public and
domestic use, water prices will escalate, and agricultural
users may have increased difficulty competing economical-
ly for water. For the first time, water managers in this part
of the country will be faced with the daunting task of con-
tinually reconciling the needs of rural users with those of
growing urban populations.
he Southeast has more miles of coastline than any other region of the country -- more than one-quar-
ter of the total conterminous U.S. coastline. Our coastal bays and estuaries are home to some of the
most unique and valuable aquatic resources anywhere.
Chesapeake Bay, off the coast of Virginia, is the largest estuary in North America. It covers more than
4.200 square miles, supports 2,500 species of animals and plants, and has historically been the country's
most productive estuary. Chesapeake Bay has a 64,000 square mile drainage basin or watershed that
includes portions of six states.
The Gulf of Mexico's shrimp fishery is the most valuable in
the nation. The Gulf provides more than 75 percent of the
nation's commercial fish and shellfish landings, worth $2
billion annually, and supports an additional $25 billion in
related economic activity (for example, tourism and recre-
ation). Mississippi Gulf coastal wetlands provide essential
habitat for numerous fish species, roughly 138 bird species,
3I shellfish species, six reptile species, and 11 mammal
species. In addition, the Gulf provides critical habitat for 75
percent of the migratory waterfowl that cross the U.S., and
half of the nation's remaining wetlands occur along the
Gulf coast.
are significant to both marine life and people, They are crit-
ical spawning grounds and nurseries for fish, shellfish, birds.
and other wildlife. Marsh plants and other vegetation in
estuaries protect marine life and water quality by filtering
sedimengs and toxic pollutants from runofi~ and by acting as
barriers to dam ~ging waves and floods.
Estuaries are also valuable for economic, recreational.
and aesthetic reasons. People love water sports and visit
estuaries to boat, fish, swim, and enjoy their beauty. For this
reason, the economies of coastal areas frequently depend on
the natural beauty and bounty of their estuaries. Estuaries
often have ports serving shipping, transportation, and indus-
try, and healthy estuaries support profitable, commercial
fisheries.
Water, plants, and animals (including humans) are ail
components of the estuary's ecosystem. When those compo-
nents are in balance, natural resources flourish. But when
human activities upset the balance, government authorities
end tip having to close beaches and shellfish beds, and issue
public warnings discouraging fish consumption.
~8~B~iOB 88B~888 Agriculture has had a signifi-
cant impact on coastal resources. Runoff from farmland of
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, sediment, and pesti-
cides into rivers and streams eventually ends tip in coastal
waters. Farmers use millions of tons of nitrogen products per
year, much of which finds its way into waterways that dram
to the coast. Two-thirds of the continental U.S. drains to
the Gulf of Mexico alone. But agriculture isn't the only cul-
prit where nitrogen runoff is concerned. Municipalities and
industries release more than a quarter-million tons of nitro-
gen compounds per year to rivers and streams.
8P® tB 8®B®8 t® 8®asr Roughly half
of the world's population currently lives in coastal areas, and
the same will be true for the U.S. population by the year
2010. Currently, more than a third of our region's popula-
tion lives in a coastal area. Coastal counties are growing
three times faster than inland areas. People need housing,
services, and roads, so new industries and businesses arrive
to provide them. ~ragile coastal marshes and estuaries are
disrupted by development activities, and sickened by the
stream of toxic chemicals running off lawns, roads, and
other urban surfaces. We're losing the benefits of the
ral storm-buffering and water filtration functions wetlands
perform, as well as the health of the fisheries they support.
C~~ ~h~ E¥~ Seasonalhurricanes
are a fact of life along the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts.
In 1999~ North Carolina was subjected to repeated assaults
by Hurricanes Dennis. Floyd. and Irene. The biggest impact
of those storms was the widespread flooding, but experts say
future storms may produce even greater floods. One of the
most important functions of coastal wetlands is to buffer
storm surges. Floodplains naturally contain flood flows.
However, continued rapid urbanization of the Raleigh-
Durham-Chapel Hill area and other floodplain areas, cou-
pled with recent, wholesale modification of coastal North
Carolina wetlands and floodplains make continued vulnera-
bility to storms almost a certainty.
Cases of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and dermatologic
illnesses all skyrocketed during the first two weeks following
Hurricane Floyd. Emergency room vis~ts for dermatologic
illnesses, rashes, and scratches were up 65 percent the first
MiSSISSIPPi
fram 1682-1961 was 13.~%.
week, and 79 percent the second week. Animal bites were
up a whopping 30 percent from snakes. 169 percent from
dogs, and 246 percent from insects. Timely and effective aer-
ial spraying probably prevented increases in mosquito-trans-
mitted diseases when mosquito populations exploded during
the periods following the storms.
More than 2,000 community and non-community drink-
lng water systems in eastern North Carolina were hnpacted
by flooding from the three hurricanes, with some remaining
inoperable for periods of up to several days.
Total damages from the three storms to crops, farm struc-
tures, and livestock were over $800 million. More than
43.000 homes sustained some degree of damage, and the
State will spend more than $100 million, plus federal m~ti-
gation funds, to buy out flood-prone properties.
Determining the full extent of the storms' unpacts on
eastern North Carolina waterways, particularly the estuaries
and sound, is probably years off, but among those impacts
will be effects from ammal feedlot chemicals and pathogens.
including genetically resistant bacteria; other agricultural
ia the Zlst
pollutants, such as pesticides and fertilizers; and petroleum
products. In addition, more than 130 underground storage
tanks released at least some of their contents into water-
ways, and decaying corpses of dead animals, both domestic
and wild, added stresses to the ecosystems.
The irrefutable lesson of the 1999 hurricane season is that
inappropriate development and land uses in coastal wetlands
and floodplains aren't in anyone's long-term best interest.
8easta 8estePatie Habitat restoration has been
used for environmental reparation for many years now, but in
the past, it was primarily an opportunistic venture. Land was
bought and a single habitat type was restored to protect what-
ever species had gotten the public's attention, and restoration
efforts usually had to settle for whatever land was available for
purchase. Recently, the concept of restoring whole landscapes
in order to recreate the natural balance between habitats and
species has come to the fore. It's based on the idea that "habi-
tat mosaics" are the essence of healthy and balanced ecosys-
tems. This approach requires a departure from opportunistic
land acquisition and a move toward broad-based collabora-
tions between public and private landowners. It maximizes
benefits to wildlife by providing areas that support whole com-
munities of animals - not just one or two endangered species.
i
C0~$~ CO~P¥~i~ Between Charleston and
Beaufort, South Carolina lies the largest coastal wetland in
the Southeast, outside of the Everglades. Called the ACE
Basin (for the three blackwater rivers that converge there,
the Ashepoo, Combahee and Edisto), it consists of approxi-
mately 350,000 acres of diverse habitat.
Designated a world-class ecosystem under The Nature
Conservancy's Last Great Places program, the basin's unique
system of estuaries is the focus of one of the most successful
conservation partnerships in the country. Federal, state and
local government agencies have joined with private organiza-
tions such as Ducks Unlimited and The Nature Conservancy
to form the ACE Basin Task Force, which has conserved
almost 130,000 of the basin's most environmentally sensitive
acres. Of that total acreage, 50,000 acres are publicly accessi-
ble conservation lands managed by federal, state, and local
resource agencies. In addition to being ecologically valuable,
the region is rich in history. Historic and cultural landmarks,
such as old plantation homes, forts, cemeteries, and churches,
are also being preserved through the project.
What sets the ACE Basin project apart from many simi-
lar projects is the role private landowners have played.
Voluntary conservation easements have ensured the perpet-
ual protection of almost 80,000 acres of former rice planta-
tions, bottomland hardwood forests, marshes, and rare stands
of maritime forest and longleaf pine.
rom the mangrove swamps of Florida... to the sandy pine forests of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal
plains.., to the interior pine oak forests of the rolling Piedmont... to the spruce fir forests of the
Southern Appalachians...
Forests are a dominant feature on the Southeastern landscape, occupying more than 60 percent of our
region. Our Southeastern forests are some of the most productive and ecologically diverse forests in the
world. The proportion of our states covered by forests ranges from just over 40 percent in Florida, to over
65 percent in South Carolina and Georgia.
The distribution of forest types throughout the Southeast is
determined by many environmental factors, including cli-
mate, topography, soils, and past land uses.
Forest cover in most of the Southeast was essentially
unbroken in pre-Colonial times. Clearing for agriculture
took off toward the end of the 18th century, and by modern
standards, early forest clearing practices were often abom-
inable. Huge areas were slashed and burned, causing per-
manent damage to the fragile underlying soil, widespread
19.5 percent owned by the forest industry
70 percent owned by private individuals
erosion, and extensive silting of rivers and streams.
However, as more and more practical uses for timber arose,
so evolved a newfound appreciation for the economic value
of forests and trees. Trees meant fuel for steamboats and
cotton mills, charcoal for pig iron works, and lumber for
building construction and export -- in essence, they helped
fuel the region's burgeoning economy.
During the past century, our forests have made a great
recovery. We have more acres of forest now than we did at
the turn of the 20th century. Since the 1950s, forest acreage
has been relatively stable, with small, local gains and losses
occurring when marginal farmlands were allowed to revert
back to a forested condition, or urban areas expanded. But
today our forests are being increasingly threatened by new
factors that may prevent their meeting our current and
future needs. Unlike in the West, where most of the forest
land is publicly owned, most Southeastern forest land is, and
has traditionally been, privately owned.
The number of private forest landowners in the region
has increased over the past several decades, while the
amount of forest land has remained fairly constant. This
trend has resulted in smaller average forest parcel sizes,
which greatly complicates the task of achieving sustainable
forest management practices at the landscape, state, or
regional level.
Our National Forests are managed for multiple uses,
including timber, water supplies, wildlife habitat, fisheries,
and recreation. However, the demands on them have
increased over the past several decades as our urban popula-
tions have expanded. With increased public desire for safe
drinking water, increased recreational opportunities, and
wildlife habitat protection, we'll likely see increased pres-
sure on private forests to produce the wood products that
fuel economic growth.
st ,® t=i Our society
depends on the many, important goods and ecological serv-
ices intact forests provide, including: clean air and water,
biological diversity and productivity, fish and wildlife habi-
tat, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment. There are charac-
teristics of forest ecosystems akin to human "vital signs" that
we can measure and monitor over time to assess our forests'
long-term ability to provide these benefits. Chief among
them are biological and non-biological "stressors" -- for
example: forest insects and diseases, invasive plants, air pol-
lution, fire, storms, drought, and increasing urbanization.
~iZ~: FOP~ ~O~$ Over the past cen-
~ FP~~i~ tury, the demographic struc-
ture of the region has shifted from predominantly rural, agri-
cultural communities to densely populated, urban areas with
smaller, diffuse rural populations. This shift has widened the
gap between urban and rural residents' perception of forests
and the benefits they provide, and has led to increased con-
flicts over how our forests should be managed.
Population growth usually results in forest land being
converted to non-forest uses -- particularly urban develop.
ment. Not only is the quantity of forest acreage reduced, but
habitat quality suffers as forests become fragmented into
small, isolated patches.
Large tracts of dense forest provide relatively rare and
high quality "interior" forest habitat not found in smaller
patches. Interior forest habitat is the portion of a forest stand
that lies far enough away from the forest edge as to shelter it
from predators and climactic and human disturbance.
In general, urban development has been responsible for
the most forest fragmentation, followed by agriculture and
forest management practices. Over the past couple of
decades, areas along major transportation corridors, such as
Interstates 85 and 95, and near expanding urban centers,
such as Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh-Durham and Charlotte,
North Carolina; Chattanooga, Tennessee; and Washington,
D.C. have experienced some of the highest forest loss and
fragmentation. Similarly, areas throughout the Piedmont,
portions of the coastal plain in north central Florida, and
along the Mississippi River floodplain have experienced
tremendous forest loss due to conversion to agriculture.
the most important agricultural commodity in the
Southeast. "Intensive forest management" has become syn-
onymous with practices as clear-cutting; extensive use of
herbicides and pesticides; replanting to a "monoculture" or
single, commercial tree species; and use of genetically
improved seedlings, and reliance on short rotation periods
biological
the produc-
capacity, health,
vitality of forest
osystems
soil and
aintaining and
g-term
benefits
at meet the needs of
for cutting. Three quarters of the region's timber plantation
acreage, where these practices are most prevalent, is in
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi. Ninety-four
percent of the plantation acreage is privately owned.
The good news is that many federal and industrial tim-
berland owners have begun to use "sustainable forestry"
practices on their lands to sustain the full spectrum of values
and benefits provided by forests.
g~P POI~iO~ Tropospheric ozone, meaning ozone in
the portion of the earth's atmosphere where cloud formation
occurs, is the most significant air pollutant impacting forest
health in our region. High ozone levels occur near, or down-
wind from, industrial facilities and urban centers. Ozone
enters plant leaves through their normal physiological
processes, damaging leaf tissues and subsequently reducing
growth and reproductive capabilities. Another significant
air pollutant is atmospheric nitrogen, which leads to acidifi-
cation of high-elevation watersheds.
FgP~ ~gCt~ ~8 ~i~~ Insect and dis-
ease damage is causing significant hardwood and softwood
timber loss in the Southeast. Forest insects causing some of
the worst damage are the Southern pine beetle, gypsy moth,
and balsam wooly adelgid. The Southern pine beetle is one
of the most serious insect pests of pine forests in the South.
Insect outbreaks occur cyclically throughout the region, and
an epidemic is always in progress somewhere within the
natural range of this pest.
The gypsy moth came to the U.S. from Europe in 1869.
First appearing in Massachusetts, it has steadily expanded its
range north, west, and south. Gypsy moths cause widespread
defoliation, resulting in reduced growth and vigor, then
mortality. They also reduce aesthetic, recreational, and
wildlife values.
The balsam wooly adelgid made its appearance in the
southern Appalachians in the 1950s. It feeds on balsam and
Fraser fir trees at higher mountain elevations and injects a
toxic substance into the tree's cell tissues that interferes
with its ability to process water and nutrients -- ultimately,
starving the tree. Vast stands of balsam and Fraser fir have
been wiped out by this pest.
Major forest diseases in the Southeast are dogwood
anthracnose, oak decline, and fusiform rust found on southern
pines. Dogwood anthracnose affects flowering dogwoods and
is primarily restricted to higher elevations and cool moist sites
at lower elevations.
Oak decline affects both upland and bottomland oak
species. Several factors, such as climate, site quality, and tree
age can weaken trees and predispose them to diseases which
wouldn't ordinarily kill vigorous trees. Typically, there is a
gradual, but progressive, "dieback" of the tree's crown, typi-
cally resulting in death after several years. Tall, mature trees
are the most heavily afflicted.
Fusiform rust is the most important disease affecting pine
tree species in the region. Roughly 16.7 million acres of slash
and loblolly pine forest have at least 10 percent of the trees
infected. The disease forms cankers on branches and the main
stem of pine trees, and generally kills the tree within five years.
Ig¥~i¥~ P}~g~ Millions of acres of Southeastern
forest land are increasingly being occupied by harmful, inva-
sive plants. These are non-native species that have been
imported into the U.S. and released either intentionally, as
ornamental species, or accidentally, as "hitch hikers" via
automobiles, trains, airplanes, or ship bilges. Once released
into the environment, they spread rapidly, forming dense
infestations and competing with native vegetation for space,
light, and nutrients.
They are hardy competitors and out-compete native for-
est species for several reasons. They have no natural preda-
tors in their new environment, they usually tolerate shady
forest conditions, and they reproduce rapidly. The total
infested acreage and spreading rates of encroaching exotic
plants in the Southeast are unknown, but Kudzu and
Japanese honeysuckle alone occupy over seven million acres
each, and they are still spreading.
T~ ~i~ ~ ~ There's no question that
we live in a special place. The question is: Can it last? We
think so. but only if we come to understand the relationship
between the choices we make, both as individuals and as a
society, and our environmental quality, and make environ-
mentally smart decisions about our future.
And it's already happening: Florida's Preservation 2000 land
acqmsition program has acquired hundreds of thousands of
acres of sensitive lands, and will continue to spend $300 mil-
lion per year for the next ten years. North Carolina's recently
established Clean Water Management Trust Fund is beginning to
do the same thing in that state. In 1998, Tennessee passed land-
mark growth management legis-
lation. Alabama recently passed
a $111 million bond for acquir-
ing and managing parks. And in
Georgia, the governor champi-
oned and the legislature passed
legislation creating a regional
transit authority for the 13-
county metropolitan Atlanta
area, to address its congestion and air pollution problems.
The private sector also has its share of success stories.
Developments that minimize stormwater runoff by minimiz-
ing roads and other impervious surfaces are gaining curren-
cy in the marketplace. Seaside (Florida), one of the first such
developments, now shares its town center design with
dozens of environmentally friendly developments across the
region. Developers are discovering that designing towns for
people, rather than cars, can be more profitable than sprawl-
ing development, because it minimizes infrastructure costs.
A growing recognition that air and water quality are land
use issues is beginning to serve parts of our region well. But
we need to expand this awareness at all levels of govern-
ment -- particularly the county level, where most zoning
decisions are made.
Numerous agencies and organizations are working hard to
protect our remaining strongholds of biological diversity, con-
serve and restore impacted habitats, and educate the public
about the value of natural resources. Programs such as The
Nature Conservancy's Rivers of Life and the World Wildlife
Fund's Living Planet Campaign have targeted Southeastern
rivers and watersheds for conservation and public education.
Other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as
Partners in Flight and the newly established Partners in
Amphibian and Reptile Conservation work with governmental
agencies, academic institutions, other NGOs, and the public
to promote research, conservation, and education about these
fascinating species, their life histories, and their habitats.
Of equal importance to conservation are the grassroots
initiatives in our own neighborhoods. Organizations across
the region are working to preserve small, but critical pock.
ets of biological importance in our own backyards. These
efforts are helping to maintain linkages between native
habitats throughout the region.
tions operate many strong programs in the Southeast, but the
local land trust community in our region is immature com-
pared to its counterparts elsewhere and, as a result, has pro-
tected less land. However, land conservation is a growing pri-
ority in the Southeast, and between 1988 and 1998, the num-
ber of local trusts nearly doubled. Land trusts are nonprofit
membership corporations whose mission involves land con-
servation. In contrast to large, well known national organiza-
tions such as The Nature Conservancy and The Trust for
Public Land, most local land trusts are small, community-
based organizations focused on protecting locally or regional-
ly important resources. Many are all-volunteer organizations,
and most operate with modest staffing levels. Conservation
easements are their most popular tool, and many work as part-
ners with state and local governments, acquiring land and
transferring it to public agencies for management.
SENRLG's Southeastern Ecolo~al Framework, a network of
"hubs" and "corridors," will help state and local partners decide
where to acquire open space that preserves connections between
important natural areas. Ecological "hubs" are areas of high biot-
ic diversity and low fragmentation found in wildlife refuges,
national and state forests and parks, and private protected lands.
Open space "conidors" connect the hubs and typically follow
natural land and water features, such as rivers and ridges.
E~ch ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t~ P~ Significant
amounts of pollution are generated by the burning of fossil
fuels, which provide the bulk of the electrical energy used in
the Southeast. If we take steps to conserve electrical energy
at home and in our workplaces, we reduce the amount of
coal that must be burned to meet demands, and thereby pre-
vent pollution at the source (that is, the power plants).
Recycling and re-using paper, glass, plastics, and alu-
minum remains perhaps the single most effective method by
which consumers can prevent pollution. Recycling reduces
the amount of waste that must be disposed of in landfills and
incinerators, which are potential sources of air and water pol-
lution. In addition, manufacturing new items usually requires
much more energy than producing the same items from recy-
cled materials. For example, it takes as much as 10 times more
energy to manufacture a new aluminum can as it takes to
manufacture one from recycled aluminum. As consumers, we
can also support recycling by purchasing, whenever possible,
products that are themselves made from recycled materials.
Much progress has been made in our region in the area
of pollution prevention, but there are still many opportuni-
ties for expanding those types of practices, and making them
an integral part of our natural resource environmental pro-
tection efforts in the Southeast.
Agency Web Sites
Southeast Natural Resource Leaders Group
http://wwwrgaatl.er, usgs.gov/srnrl.html
The SENRLG Southeastern Ecological Framework
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 4
http://www, g eopla n,ufl.ed u/epa/ind ex.html
http://www, epa.gov/region4/index, html
The Tennessee Valley Authority
http://www. TVA.gov
U.S. Army Environmental Center
http://aec.army, mil
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
http://southeast.fws.gov
Natural Resources Conservation Service
National Park Service
http://www, nrcs.usda.gov
http://www, nps.gov
U.S, Forest Service
http://www, r8web.com
U,S. Geological Survey http://wvvw, usgs.gov
Photo Credits:
The Southeast Natural Resource Leaders Group wishes to thank the many organizations and individuals who
provided photographs and photo research assistance for this publication.